Madame du Châtelet - in search of a memorial

 [For International Women's Day]

It is an odd quirk of history that, whereas Marie Curie has been awarded the honours of the Pantheon, the body of the 18th-century's greatest female scientist,  Émilie du Châtelet, lies under a completely anonymous black stone slab, in the nave of the parish church of Saint-Jacques in Lunéville.  As the French has it, "elle est piétinée depuis 1749"; generations of worshippers and visitors have simply trampled over her grave as they enter the church.

Église Saint-Jacques, Lunéville

An unmarked grave

Émilie du Châtelet died from the complications of childbirth at the Palace of Lunéville, on 10th September 1749.  The whole Court turned out for the funeral which was conducted with much pomp, as befitted a member of one of the grand chevaux, the old aristocratic families of Lorraine.  According to Gaston Maugras, King Stanislas personally insisted that the greatest honours be awarded to the mortal remains of the woman whose presence, for two years, had contributed so much to his pleasure. Madame du Châtelet's reputation for freethinking and immorality, and the presence of the arch-infidel Voltaire,  made for a tense occasion.  It is reported that, as the party traversed the salle des spectacles on its way from the Queen's apartments,  the bier suddenly broke and upset the coffin. The Jesuit father Menoux did not neglect to observe that this was the exact spot where only a few weeks earlier, Émile had played centre-stage in a profane comedy.  

 Maugras La Cour de Lunéville au xviiie siecle (1904), p.463-4
https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k2057422/f473.item

According to Jean-Clément Martin ... "Martyrs" of the Revolution

 To add to my posts on the Carmelites of Compiègne, the following translates / summarise a  paper by Jean-Clément Martin on the Revolution and the concept of martyrdom, first published in 2012 (and now available on Academia). In J.-C. M.'s view,  the language of sacrifice and commemoration was central to the common experience, and to subsequent memory, on both sides of the Revolutionary struggle. 

Martyrs et Révolution française, autour du sacré

The Revolutionary period offers an exceptional opportunity to observe the workings of memory and religion in human society. The Revolutionary decade overturned established relations with the sacred and created memories which formed the foundation of new political, social and regional identities.  However, the complexity of events makes it difficult to move beyond traditional secular and political interpretations to give due weight to this dimension. 

To find an appropriate vocabulary also remains problematic, for example whether to distinguish "victims" from "martyrs", or to talk about "religion" in general... Rival traditions have their different emblematic figures:  Marat, Robespierre, Bara on the one hand, the Royal family and the "martyrs of the faith" on the other... What follows offers only a sort of "Japanese path", laying down a few stepping stones to suggest a possible route.  

I want to understand why this era was obsessed with sacrifice, why different movements and groups vied with each other to claim the glory of martyrdom; and above all why this glory has been "awarded" in national memory only to representatives of the Catholic religion.

The Martyrs of Compiègne - towards a new hagiography

The documentary Les Bienheureuses, on the Martyrs of Compiègne, was created in 2023 by journalist and independent filmmaker François Lespes.  The film was originally broadcast on the French language Catholic television channel KTO TV and, in July 2024, was reissued on the KTO TV website, as well as on YouTube. Although the project started life as an independent initiative - indeed a labour of love - it been widely endorsed in Catholic media in the run up to the canonisation of  December 2024.  It is an impressive accomplishment, especially for its insights into the lives of the modern nuns.  It also, in a certain sense, represents the current state of Catholic attitudes towards the Revolution and its legacy of violence.

Here is an English summary, concentrating on the historical analysis, with a few comments and notes, mainly based on the additional information taken from William Bush's To Quell the Terror: the true story of the Carmelite Martyrs (1999).

The Martyrs of Compiègne and Revolutionary violence

Paul Delaroche, Guillotine/ The Martyrs of Compiegne. Painted in the first half of the 19th century.
Private Collection (Auctioned in New York in 2017)

MARTYRS WITHOUT PERSECUTORS?

The canonisation of the Carmelites of Compiègne in December represents a significant testing point in relations between modern French Catholics and the legacy of the French Revolution. 

One of the few non-Catholic historians to comment so far is the Paul Chopelin, Maître de conférence at the University of Lyon III, president of the Société des études robespierristes and a specialist on the relationship between society and religion.  For Chopelin, the canonisation represents "an affair at the heart of a long conflict between memory and history, which is not yet extinguished" x.com @ChopelinP, post of 18.12. 2024 ] 

In Chopelin's view, after two centuries of hostility, the Church has made its peace with the Republican regime, but has yet to formulate a consistent attitude towards the legacy of the Revolutionary aggression.  The canonisation throws this omission into relief:  "The  memory [of the Carmelites] raises a very French problem; that of the anti-religious violence by the Revolutionaries and their reception to day.  It is a question that is largely taboo, both socially and in the histories.  [Commenting to La Vie, 21.12.2024 ]

Is this a fair analysis?  Here are a few preliminary thoughts. 

In search of the Martyrs of Compiègne

Even for assiduous relic hunters, there are pathetically few material reminders today of the martyred sisters of Compiègne.  However, the website of the French Carmelites offers a short "pilgrimage", which I have tried to follow (not in real life, just on Google Maps!).  We start off with a "promenade in Compiègne"

Le Carmel de France, "Les Carmélites martyres de Compiègne - Faire le pélerinage"
https://www.carmel.asso.fr/Faire-un-pelerinage.html

In Compiègne

The site of the 18th-century Carmel

The dominant feature of 18th-century Compiègne, as today, was the great royal château.  The Carmel was close by; the substantial site stretched as far as the Oise, covering the approximate area bounded by the modern roads rue d’Ulm, rue Othenin, cours Guynemer and rue du Fours (formerly rue des Carmélites). 

Quite literally, not a stone remains.

Where the nuns once had their chapel, there now stands the splendid Théâtre Impérial: a memorial plaque was erected in the entrance in 1994.  The area that accommodated the sisters' living quarters, until recently occupied by the  École d’État-major, is now the subject of a major urban regeneration project. 

On 7th August 1792 the National Assembly ordered the municipalities to verify the official inventory made two years previously.  The verification, seizure and removal of the convent's entire furnishings was only actually carried out on 12th September.  All items were seized and transported to the former St. Corneille Abbey, the general depot for Compiègne’s confiscated church goods... Madame Philippe mentions, in particular, the disappearance at this time of the large collection of fine, life-size wax figures composing the monastery’s celebrated “crèche.” Its numerous spectacular tableaux of richly dressed images were set up not only at Christmas, but also at other times by royal request. With an indignation rare for her, Madame Philippe opines that those magnificent wax figures had all been melted down to make the candles illumining the works of darkness fomented by revolutionary committees during their sinister nocturnal meetings.  It was  on September 14, with their housing assured and their civilian clothing acquired, that the community finally emerged from their stripped monastery... (William Bush, To Quell the Terror, p.91-92)

The contents of the Carmel were definitively sold off in November 1794, by which time the buildings had already been transformed into a military hospital.

The Martyrs of Compiègne

On 18th December the Pope announced the canonisation of  the "martyrs of  Compiègne",  sixteen Discalced Carmelite nuns executed by order of the Revolutionary Tribunal on 17th July 1794.  A procedure known as "equipollent" or "equivalent" canonisation dispensed with the need for intercessory miracles and instead recognised the long-standing veneration enjoyed by the nuns, who are held to have met their deaths with inspirational courage and unwavering faith.  At the time of their beatification in 1906 they had been declared as martyred "in odium fidei" ("in hatred of the faith"). The nuns' story is well-known through art and literature.  It was the subject of a  novella written in 1931 by the German Catholic Gertrud von Lefort and also of Georges Bernanos's Dialogues des carmélites, which provided the libretto for the highly successful opera by Francis Poulenc, first performed in 1957.

G. Molinari (1906), The Carmelite martyrs mount the scaffold, 1906. Carmel de Compiègne

 

What were the circumstances surrounding the condemnation of the nuns of Compiègne and what do they tell us about the religious policies of the Revolution?

The following is translated from an essay published in 2009 in the Annales of the Historical Society of Compiègne, by Jacques Bernet, a historian who has researched and written extensively on Revolutionary dechristianisation in the local area.  In his preface, he emphasises the need to move beyond hagiography to uncover the historical context.  In his view, the Carmelites were victims of a tragic conjunction of personalities and political circumstances rather than a generalised ideology of anti-religious violence.

The Château de Haroué - heritage rescued

The Château de Haroué in Lorraine offers an illuminating case study of the issues surrounding recent heritage policy in France.

Sometimes known as the "Chambord lorrain", the Château was built by Germain Boffrand in the 1720s for Marc Beauvau-Craon, Prince de Craon, and has the indubitable distinction of having remained in his family ever since. It was first opened to the public in 1964.

The small village of Haroué (pop.500) is located just south of Nancy, near the border of Belgium, Luxembourg and Germany.  It is billed as within easy driving distance of Basel, Strasbourg and Karlsruhe -  though, more problematically in terms of the tourist map, it is a solid 2.5 hours from Paris.

The proprietor and châtelaine,  until her death in May 2023, was the splendid Princess Marie Isabelle ("Minnie") de Beauvau-Craon. We are reminded that in France "Princess" is only a courtesy title, but Minnie still boasted a direct line of descent from Duke Leopold's favourite.  Her father,  Marc - who died of a heart attack in 1982 - was, nominally, the last Prince of Beauvau-Craon.  Minnie, who resided partly in the U.K. for 35 years and spoke fluent English, had just the right combination of blue blood and affability to inspire affection in the readers of Vogue and The Tatler.  In an interview with the New York Times in 2013 she expressed her deep commitment to the upkeep of the Château, "When you inherit something, you owe some respect to your forebearers"; "I'm determined to put life into Haroué.  I want to put it on the map, to make it a destination" (See Reading).  

Minnie de Beauvau-Craon, photographed for the New York Times in 2013

Duke Leopold's mistress

"The Duc de Lorraine seems  very fond of  my daughter.  If only this love could endure, they will both be very happy.  "But alas there is no such thing as eternal love", as they say in Clélie..... "

So wrote the Princess Palatine, in  November 1698, shortly after her daughter Élisabeth-Charlotte d'Orléan's marriage to Leopold of Lorraine. Her insights were to prove all to perspicacious, for only a few years later the Duke acquired a mistress. It was this woman, the attractive and spirited Princess de Beauvau-Craon, rather than the long-suffering Duchess, who was to  prove the enduring love of his life.  

Anne-Marguerite de Ligniville, Princess de Beauvau-Craon, aptly depicted as Venus, in a portrait by Pierre Gobert from about 1709, which was  vigilantly snapped up by the Musée du Château de Lunéville from an auction in Monaco in 2014. [On Wikimedia]

Élisabeth-Charlotte, Duchess of Lorraine

Élisabeth-Charlotte d'Orléans, Duchess of Lorraine.
School of Pierre Gobert, Château de Versailles MV3690 [Wikimedia]

One result of the explorations of  Lorraine's place in the wider European dynastic history - a  "major axis" of recent research - has been a  reassessment of the role of Leopold's consort, the Duchess Élisabeth-Charlotte. 

The following is (mostly) summarised from a paper by  Francine Roze, former director of the Musée Lorrain in Nancy, delivered to the Académie Stanislas  in 2005.

Perhaps because little of her own voice survives,  the Duchess has tended to be viewed primarily through the eyes of her mother, the inimitable Princess Palatine, and  portrayed simply as a  devoted wife and mother, beset by family troubles, reticent in manner, self-effacing and constrained by her situation.   Francine Roze, however, emphasises her standing as a French princess, her personal determination and intelligence, and the important political position she occupied after 1729 as Regent to her son, the Duke Francis III. 

A wedding at Lunéville

 

Claude Jacquart, Marriage cortège of the prince de Lixheim in the courtyard of the palace of Lunéville, on 19th August 1721.

Oil on canvas; 72cm x 121cm.   Lunéville, Musée du château. 

The marvellous painting, by Claude Jacquart, was acquired for the collections of the Château de Lunéville in 2015.  It is  a unique visual memory of a grand ceremonial occasion at the Court of Duke Leopold, in this case the wedding on 19th August 1721 of  Henri-Jacques de Lorraine, Prince de Lixheim, a distant cousin of the Duke's, and Anne-Marguerite-Gabrielle,  second daughter of the Prince de Craon , Leopold's "favori en titre".