The Cathedral of Notre-Dame in the 18th century

All of us, were dismayed by the terrible fire at Notre-Dame, though happily more of the Cathedral and its treasures seem to have survived than could at first have been thought possible. It is perhaps encouraging to remember that the building has been through many vicissitudes in its long history.....

Contemplation of the future, inevitably raises uncomfortable debates about reconstruction, restoration and reinterpretation. The Age of Enlightenment has not received a good press in this respect. Despite a grudging admiration for individual works of religious art, it has long been fashionable to follow Viollet-le-Duc and his contemporaries in condemning the 18th-century's disregard for the medieval past.  According to my 1977 Blue Guide, for instance, "Until the end of the 17C Notre-Dame had preserved intact its appearance of the 14C, but the reigns of Louis XIV and Louis XV brought deplorable alterations, particularly in the destruction of tombs and stained glass". 

A French Revolutionary children's card game

Here is a cool set of  children's "Geographical" cards from the time of the the French Revolution, currently for sale on the AbeBooks website ( all yours for $1,320 if you want them!)

There are 48 cards, each one describing a different country or geographical feature of the world, and featuring a small circular portrait of a native. The cards measure 2.5 x 4 inches and come complete with their original pink-papered box.

The date (late 1790s/1800) is easily deduced from the text:

5th Card:  "France": 
France, we learn,  has been governed by sixty-seven Kings from three different races,  from Pharamond to Louis XVI, in whose reign monarchical government was "finally abolished".  France today, we  are assured, is "the country in the world where the art of living in society is cultivated with most success."(!)

38th Card "Etats-Unis"
 "The Americans, aided by the French, proclaimed their liberty in 1776 and formed themselves into a republic, under the name of the United States."
Philadelphia is given as the American capital, which confirms the date as 1800 at the latest.

Card 48:  "Terres Polaires et Australes".  
The card mentions New Holland, Botany Bay (which is a convict colony) and Van Diemen's Land.


Link:
Geographie'. French children's geographical card game dating from the period of the French Revolution, with cards pertaining to Terres Australes and Etats Unis"
Offered by Antipodean Books, Maps & Prints in Garrison, New York on AbeBooks.
https://www.abebooks.com/servlet/BookDetailsPL?bi=14033184794&searchurl=sortby%3D1%26an%3Dfrench%2Brevolution&cm_sp=snippet-_-srp1-_-title13

Voltaire, Calas and the "black legend"

In the 21st century Voltaire's defence of Jean Calas has once again become a potent  symbol of the struggle for toleration and liberal values.  This has given the case a high profile, but has not always contributed a great deal to a the historical understanding of events.

One historian who has attempted a more balanced view of Voltaire's battles with legal authority is Benoît Garnot, until 2016 Professor of Modern History at the University of Bourgogne.  Professor Garnot is the author of an impressive number of studies of the French legal system under Ancien Régime, which focus on how it actually functioned in practice.  He refutes the idea that the judiciary was simply an instrument of royal coercion and writes of the "bons juges d’Ancien régime". His key concept is that of a compromise between judicial institutions and society at large, "une "justice négociée" (See the article "Benoît Garnot" in Wikipédia.fr).

In 2005, Garnot published a study of Voltaire, the title of which asks provocatively whether Voltaire might be guilty of "une imposture intellectuelle".

Last Protestants executed in France - the affaire Rochette 1762

The imprisonment and execution of the pastor Rochette, and the three Grenier brothers, "gentlemen glassmakers", in Toulouse in February 1762 marks the last significant act of official persecution against  the Protestants of Ancien Régime France.  It also provides the essential background to the Calas affair.  Initial events unfolded in 1761 and 1762 in Caussade, a little town north of Montauban, an area in which about half the peasants in the surrounding countryside were Protestants.

The commune of Caussade today

The arrest of Rochette

François Rochette, a young man of twenty-six, was a native of the Cévennes who had been sent from the seminary in Lausanne as pastor for Quercy and the Agenais (29 parishes in all). Although full rigour of law against Protestantism theoretically applied, up until this point he had not been much troubled by the authorities: he had conducted his services in unofficial maisons d'oraison  rather than out in the open and had moved between locations without bothering unduly to conceal himself. On 13th September 1761, having presided at a service in Bioule near Nègrepelisse, he was on his way to Caussade for a baptism, when he was arrested by chance in the countryside on suspicion of being a highwayman. When questioned he freely admitted his identity; a search of his belongings yielded a register of marriages and baptisms, several notebooks of sermons and his ministerial robes.  In theory, exercise of the Protestant ministry carried the death penalty - Rochette himself was fully prepared for martyrdom; his maternal grandfather and uncle had both been condemned to the galleys in 1690.  Nonetheless, it could reasonably be expected that he would be shown mercy.

Some Calas references

References

Primary sources

Online books - list of the defences by Sudre

http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/book/lookupname?key=Sudre%2C%20Me.%2C%20avocat%20(Th%26eacute%3Bodore)%2C%201718-1795

"Calas", Tolosana -  Bibliothèque de Toulouse 
https://tolosana.univ-toulouse.fr/fr/recherche/solr/calas

Anne Thouzet, Documents from the Departmental archives of the Haute-Garonne

http://archives.haute-garonne.fr/pdf/service_educatif/brochures/affaireCalas.pdf

Older books

Athanase-Josué Coquerel, Jean Calas et sa famille : étude historique (1869), p.191-5.

https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k57191804/f217.image.texteImage

In English:
C. Kegan Paul, "The story of Jean Calas", Theological Review, no.7 (1870), p.378-409.
https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IDM2AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA378#v=onepage&q&f=false

Frederic Herbert Maughan, The Case of Jean Calas (1928)
" Frederic Herbert Maugham, a British judge who became Lord High Chancellor under Neville Chamberlain, epitomized Europe’s enduring obsession with Marc-Antoine’s exit. He would carry a piece of string in his pocket, and, in spare moments, tie it round a pencil, reconstructing the scaffold. (In his 1928 book on the case, Maugham sided with the believers, concluding: suicide.)"


Modern books

David D. Bien, The Calas Affair, Princeton University Press 1960 [Available for loan on Open Library:  https://archive.org/details/calasaffair00bien]

Janine Garrisson, L'affaire Calas: miroir des passions françaises, Fayart 2004.

Benoît Garnot, Voltaire et l’affaire Calas:  les faits, les interprétations, les enjeux, Hatier, 2013

Review articles

Philippe Poisson, "Voltaire et l'affaire Calas", Criminocorpus, 26.02.2017

https://criminocorpus.hypotheses.org/24995

"L'affaire Calas" Ministère de la Justice website, 14.09.2011.

http://www.justice.gouv.fr/histoire-et-patrimoine-10050/proces-historiques-10411/laffaire-calas-22774.html

 L'histoire par l'image:  l'Affaire Calas

https://www.histoire-image.org/fr/etudes/affaire-calas

Other articles

Paul Romane-Musculus, "La famille de Jean Calas", Annales du Midi 1962  74-60  p 404-409

https://www.persee.fr/doc/anami_0003-4398_1962_num_74_60_4076

A. Feugère, "Un scandale toulousain au XVIIIe siècle: Le Capitoul David et les jeux défendus"

Annales du Midi, 1932 (44-175)  p. 296-331

https://www.persee.fr/doc/anami_0003-4398_1932_num_44_175_514

 Michel Porret,"Calas innocent : les preuves par la science", L'Histoire, no.323, Sept. 2007

https://www.lhistoire.fr/calas-innocent-les-preuves-par-la-science

_____, "La médecine légale entre doctrines et pratiques", Revue d'Histoire des Sciences Humaines, 2010/1 (no. 22), p. 3-15.

https://www.cairn.info/revue-histoire-des-sciences-humaines-2010-1-page-3.htm

Voltaire and the Calas case

Benoît Garnot, C’est la faute à Voltaire… Une imposture intellectuelle ? (Belin, 2005)

https://journals.openedition.org/ahrf/11569 [Review by Claude Coquard]

_____,  "Au temps des bons juges d’Ancien Régime",  L'Histoire, no.356, Sept.2010
http://www.lhistoire.fr/au-temps-des-bons-juges-dancien-r%C3%A9gime

_____, France Inter,  La Marche de l'Histoire: "Voltaire et l’affaire Calas", produced  by Jean Lebrun,
broadcast 9.03.2015.
https://www.franceinter.fr/emissions/la-marche-de-l-histoire/la-marche-de-l-histoire-09-mars-2015

Reply to Garnot:  Michel Porret  « Voltaire et le droit de punir. Un activiste du moment Beccaria », Revue d’histoire moderne et contemporaine, 2016-3, p. 88-109.
https://www.cairn.info/revue-d-histoire-moderne-et-contemporaine-2016-3-page-88.htm

François Lebrun, "Affaire Calas: Voltaire dans la mêlée" L'Histoire, no.268, Sept. 2002

http://www.lhistoire.fr/affaire-calas-voltaire-dans-la-m%C3%AAl%C3%A9e

"La Beaumelle dans la tourmente de l’affaire Calas", Voltaire Foundation blog, 29.11.2018

https://voltairefoundation.wordpress.com/2018/11/29/la-beaumelle-dans-la-tourmente-de-laffaire-calas/

TV Movie:  Voltaire et l’affaire Calas directed by Francis Reusser (TV Movie 2007)

https://vimeo.com/196093097

Blogs and write-ups

Olivier Marchal, Blog posts on Voltaire and the affaire Calas

https://oliviermarchal.blogspot.com/2015/03/

Ken Armstrong, "Broken on the Wheel", Paris Review, 13.03.2013.

https://www.theparisreview.org/blog/2015/03/13/broken-on-the-wheel/

Geri Walton, "Being Broken on the Wheel in the 18th century"

https://www.geriwalton.com/being-broken-on-the-wheel-in-the-18th-century/

Calas - the evidence

1. The case for the Prosecution (see Garnot, p.53-60)

Witness statements

There were no eye-witnesses to the crime and even indirect testimonies were inconclusive.

The accusation was based on two charges: that the Calas family had killed Marc-Antoine because he wanted to convert to Catholicism, and that they had been aided in this by all or part of the Protestant community of Toulouse. 
 The Monitoire asked explicitly for proof that murder had been decided upon that morning in a house in the "parish of Daurade" (ie.the house of Lavaisse's host Cazeing) and that, following this,  Marc-Antoine had been killed "by suspension or torsion".

Here is the text of the Monitoire in English.
C. Kegan Paul, "The story of Jean Calas", Theological Review, no.7 (1870), p.378-409, p.394
https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IDM2AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA394#v=onepage&q&f=false

Calas - the trial

The following is mainly summarised from Benoît Garnot, Voltaire et l’affaire Calas:  les faits, les interprétations, les enjeux, Hatier, 2013

1. The crime (Garnot, p.11-14)

At seven o'clock on the evening of 13th October 1761, the Calas family gathered for supper on the first floor of 16 rue des Filatiers: Jean Calas, a dealer in Indiennes, was 63 years old, and his wife Anne-Rose fifteen years younger.  With them were two of their sons, Marc-Antoine, aged 28 and Pierre, 22, employees in their father's business.  The other two sons Louis and Louis-Donat were not present;  the first, aged 25,  also lived  in Toulouse but was estranged from the family, and the second, aged 14, was an apprentice in Nîmes.  Two daughters, Anne-Rose and Anne (Nannette), aged 18 and 19, were away on a visit to the country.  Joining them for the meal was a friend of Marc-Antoine, François-Alexandre Gaubert de Lavaysse [Lavaisse], aged 22, the son of a lawyer in Toulouse.  The servant of the Calas family, Jeanne Viguière, was also present.

Calas discovers the body of his dead son,
Engraving after Charles Joseph Dominique Eisen

Marc Antoine left the house immediately after supper, at about half-past seven.  At about ten o'clock, Pierre was accompanying Lavaysse out, when he discovered his brother's body, lying -  at least so he first claimed  - on the floor of the shop, his coat neatly folded on the counter.  The two young men went to fetch a nearby surgeon Camoire, but chanced to encounter his pupil Gorsse, who came back with them instead;  the latter immediately realised that it was too late to revive Marc Antoine.  On removing Marc-Antoine's black neckerchief, he discovered a rope mark round his neck and declared that  he must have  been strangled or hanged, "by himself or by others".  Meanwhile a crowd of onlookers had gathered in front of the house.  They soon jumped to the conclusion that the Calas family, who were Protestants, must have killed Marc-Antoine themselves to prevent him converting to Catholicism, as his brother Louis had done.  

The authorities were now notified.  At half-past eleven, the capitoul David de Beaudrigue arrived on the scene, accompanied by the maître en chirurgie  Jean-Pierre Lamarque.  They reported that they had found "the body of a young man laid on his back, his head bare, in his shirt sleeves, wearing only his breeches, stockings and shoes":
On examining the corpse, since it appeared to us that he had not died of natural causes, we were obliged to summon M. Latour, doctor and the sieurs Peyronnel and Lamarque, official surgeons of the town; they...were asked to proceed to the verification of the body and testify to  its state and the cause of death.  The body was then transported to the l’Hôtel de ville, with his coat which was found on the counter.....
Document cited from Athanase Coquerel,  Jean Calas et sa famille, 1869, p.341-2.

That evening in the Calas House.....

Here is a translation of the guide to the Maison Calas created for the Mairie de Toulouse . - thus, to an extent, the modern "official version" of the Calas affair. (The brochure can be seen on display inside the house in various photographs and videos).

The text is based on the book L'Affaire Calas by the late Janine Garrisson, published by Fayard in 2004.  The guide also includes a very swish illustration produced  by Studio différemment, a company specialising in digital historical reconstructions.  Numbers refer to the different parts of the house where the events took place.

It is the best known criminal case in the history of Toulouse.  But, if we put aside the media outcry and its historical consequences, we rediscover a family tragedy, which began on the evening of 13th October 1761 in the rue des Filatiers....

Jean Calas was a native of the Huguenot lands around Castres and Mazamet who had set up a modest cloth business in Toulouse.  He was married to Anne-Rose Cabibel, a Protestant from the same region. The couple had six children, four sons and two daughters.  The eldest Marc-Antoine had ambitions to become a lawyer but was debarred because he declined to conform to Catholicism.   Like his younger brother Pierre, he helped his father in the shop.  A third brother Louis, had left the family home and become a Catholic, thereby obliging his father to provide him with a pension.  The other member of the household was their servant Jeanne Viguière, a Catholic (since Protestants were  not permitted to employ their co-religionists as servants)

❶ The supper
That evening the Calas family had a dinner guest, Gaubert Lavaisse, the son of Protestant friends in Toulouse; Madame Calas had bought a piece of Roquefort cheese in his honour. Also present, besides their parents, were Pierre and Marc-Antoine. Marc-Antoine had been sent out earlier by his father to get change for some louis d'or; the servant Jeanne Viguière had gone to fetch him from the cabaret Quatre Billards [a cafe-pool hall] where he often spent his free time.  Over the meal Gaubert talked about his studies in Bordeaux.  Marc-Antoine, who seemed tense, corrected his brother sharply over historical details in their conversation about the architectural improvements taking place in Toulouse.  After the dessert had been served, at about half-past eight he got up from the table and left once more for the Quatre Billards........

❷ After supper
The Calas family and their guest spent the period after supper in the adjoining room, Madame Calas's chamber.  At about ten o'clock Lavaisse took his leave of the family.  Pierre, who had fallen asleep, was woken up in order to accompany him....

The drama
As they passed, Pierre and Lavaisse noticed that the door to the back room of the shop was open ❸, which was unusual.  They went inside and discovered the body of Marc-Antoine.  Pierre immediately called his father who came downstairs and found the scene. ❹

Door from the corridor into the rear room of the Calas shop (now blocked off) 
Photos from the Association Jean Calas Facebook page.

Pierre then left to get help and came upon a surgeon's assistant whom he knew called Antoine Gorsse.  They untied the black scarf around Marc-Antoine's neck, to find rope marks on his skin. Gorsse concluded, "Your son has been hanged or strangled".  Anne-Rose Calas refused to believe that her son was dead and tried to revive him by bathing his face in Hungary Water.  The whole neighbourhood was alerted by the cries of the Calas family❺ and the servant Jean Viguiere, who shouted in occitan,"L'an tuat!" ("Ils l'ont tué" - they have killed him)   Everyone assumed that a murder had taken place.

Maison de Jean Calas

This is No.50, formerly No.16, rue des Filatiers in Toulouse, the building which once housed the business premises and home of the Protestant merchant Jean Calas.  It was here, on the fateful evening of 13th October 1761, that discovery of the body of the son of the house, Marc-Antoine Calas,  set in train the most famous cause célèbre of the 18th century.

The campaign for the House

In 2009 the Association Jean Calas, l'Europe nous regarde was set up in Toulouse by retired teacher Claude Dupuy,  to campaign for the Maison Calas to be secured as " a place of memory for the values of tolerance, liberty of thought and laicity".

As the photograph shows, the building has suffered from neglect.  It is a classified historical monument and parts of the structure date from the late 15th century but not a lot remains to be seen. On the road is a shuttered shopfront;  the rest of the building is divided into a dozen or so apartments.  Only the entrance corridor, which leads to an interior courtyard, is accessible to the public. The commercial property on the ground floor is/was leased by the Toulouse supermarket group Casino which chooses to leave the premises empty.  In March 2012 tenants were informed that, after seven years, there were plans for a new supérette, but this did not in fact materialise.

Marion Sigaut - a beginner's guide....

The Right-wing activist and historian Marion Sigaut is one of those French intellectuals who is  unknown in the Anglo-Saxon world - almost literally: Google yields hardly a mention on the internet in English.  In France, on the other hand, she has a conspicuous public profile and hostile feelings can run high -  the discussion page for the article "Marion Sigaut" on the French version of Wikipedia includes an "appeal for calm" and enjoins its contributors to keep their sang-froid.....

Who is Marion Sigaut?

According to Wikipedia, Marion Sigaut was born in Paris in 1950 and has lived in the Bourgogne since 1991. She was formerly a freelance writer and journalist. She is associated the with extreme right-wing organisation Égalité et Réconciliation, founded in June 2007 by Alain Sorel, and publishes under Sorel's imprint Éditions Kontre Kulture. She has also edited several of  Sorel's own works. In 2001, when already past fifty,  Sigaut gave up her writing career to take up the advanced study of history first at the university of Besançon,  and subsequently in Paris. Opponents debate whether she really deserves the title "historian" since she does not have an academic post or a doctorate, but only a DEA [Diplôme d'études approfondies].  A book based on her research into the 18th-century Hôpital général in Paris was published in 2008.  She has also written monographs on Damiens, David and Voltaire.  Sigaut's format of preference in recent years has been conference lectures on video. (Sceptics have sometimes contended that the conferences are fabrications and she is all alone in front of the camera; this is not true, - but some of the venues are pretty obscure.). Thanks to the Right-wing press, she has a formidable publicity machine at her disposal.